Gottfried Thomasius View Of Kenotic Christology Religion Essay

Gottfried Thomasius View Of Ke nonic messiahology Religion EssayIntroductionThe avatar of saviour deliveryman has been a subject of attention from the earliest decades of the machinateation of the rescuerian perform. It has non been with strike forward its subsequent controversies. Several early councils were convened to encompass the various issues regarding the divinityhead and in special(prenominal), the individual and reputation of messiah. Of these, the fourth enormous council of Chalcedon established the parameters of the soul and character of delivery boy in the Orthodox get.1In an get to articulate the mortal and dis identify of delivery boy, the German theologian Gottfried Thomasius publish a relieve unitaryself amid 1853 and 1861 entitled delivereri Person und Werk (Christs Person and Work).2In this essay, Thomasius called attention to the Greek watchword kenosis bring in Philippians 27 in demonstrating his theory of the empty of Christ during the incarnation. Thomasius slang of kenosis contributed con posturerably to the interest in the incarnation principles of Christology. His work became the basis for further studies into what is much comm moreover called Kenotic pietism. This paper allow attempt to disposition that Thomasius prospect of kenosis is not arrant(a)ly consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation.Develop handst of Systematic TheologyAs the early church began to call d profess so did varying looks as men began to think closely the doctrines of scripture in a systematic direction. Was savior God? First-century Christians saw that the answer was not simple-minded. Nature is not simple, so why then should we expect the Creator of nature be simple?3Within the first four hundred years of Christianity in that location arose 6 major heresies and they all involved an aspect of the psyche of Christ.4Then, as now, thither argo n doctrines, which men wrestle with and that still divide themselves over. Even at once there are those who would say that some things are too obscure to fully understand such as Robertson McQuilkin who said, As we approach the record intent on discovering all the truth God intends for us to understand, we should leaven our expectations and attitudes, as there are limitations on what is possible.5Not withstanding, it is the obligation of every Christian to search out the truths of Gods word and to faithfully study it in order to build a competent system of beliefs. With regard to the mortal and nature of Christ, the words of Millard Erickson ring all the more true when he said, All departures from the orthodox doctrine of the soulfulness of Christ are entirely variations of one of these six heresies. While we may give up difficulty specifying exactly the gist of this doctrine, full fidelity to teaching of Scripture will carefully keep down each of these distortions.6The Council of ChalcedonThe early councils of the Christian church were ecumenical gatherings of church leadership and scholars who were brought together in order to address the issues that divided the church and desire to set forth declarations that defined the proper reasonableness of these controversial theological issues that had an impact on the church. Each of the great councils formulated certain belief about these issues of controversy, which then became the orthodox view of the Christian church.Concerning the first great council of Nicea, Norman Geisler states, The Nicene Creed (A.D. 325) states the uniform belief of all orthodox Christianity that Christ was fully God and fully Man. All heresies regarding Christ abandon one or the former(a)(a) of these.7One of the intense important issues to the Church was, and rightfully should have been, a proper understanding of the person and nature of Christ. In regard to the council of Chalcedon, which was convened in 451, J. H. H all wroteThe work of Chalcedon can be understood whole in the light of a series of Christological declarations beginning with the Council of Nicea (325). The Nicene Creed say that Christ is of the akin overlord marrow squash with the Father, against Arius, who taught that Christ had a beginning and was only of similar substance. The Council of Constantinople (381) both(prenominal) ratified and refined the Nicene Creed, in opposition to continuing Arianism, and declared against Apollinarianism, which stated that Christs benevolent soul had been replaced by the divine Logos. Moreover, Constantinople declared that the blessed Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.8As examinations act to grow about the nature of Christ in the incarnation, so did controversy. The preceding councils established the churches opinion with regard to the deity of Christ that He is indeed of the same substance as the father.Later questions arose with respect to the adult male side and divine s ide of the nature of Christ. The Nestorian view held to a separation of the two natures of Christ as opposed to the Eutychian view, which theorized that Christ had only one nature.9The Nestorian view was rejected at the council of Ephesus but Eutychianism was later embraced. Seeing the continued discord, pope Leo I instigated Emperor Marcion to call a new council and it was pertinacious that it would be held in the city of Chalcedon.The Council of Chalcedon achieved three important things. J.H. Hall states, First, it reaffirmed the Nicene tradition second, it accepted as orthodox the letters of Cyril and Leo and third, it provided a definition of the faith.10Hall continues, There existed two overarching concerns- maintenance of the unity of Christs person and establishment of the two natures of Christ.11The Catechetical Lectures of S. Cyril of Jerusalem attribute a portion of Epiphanius, Ancoratus, 118, c. AD 374, as creationness that which contained the Nicene assent which was read and clear at Chalcedon.12What Chalcedon effectively achieved was setting forth certain parameters about the nature of Christ. That which is formulated to the understanding of these two natures must(prenominal) therefore fall inwardly these parameters in order to remain orthodox.In setting these parameters of orthodoxy, certain attributes must be maintained. One of the most important issues involves immutability. The Definition of Chalcedon sustained the continued immutability of Christ. The council declaration was as followsTherefore, following the holy Fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our manufacturer Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead and complete in mankind, genuinely God and truly man, consisting also of a bonnie soul and body of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood like us in all respects, apart from sin as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father earlier the ages, but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, recognized in two natures, without confusion, without change, without di trance, without separation the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the juncture, but rather the characteristics of each nature being continue and coming together to form one person and subsistence, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same son and Only-begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the Fathers has handed down to us.13The Chalcedonian Creed provided the church with a statement that Christ indeed possessed two distinct natures, both a human side and divine side and that he existed in one person in an unchangeable way.14Gottfried Thomasiuss view of kenosisIn the first part of the nineteenth century, when Ferdinand Baur became professor of theology at Germ boths Tubingen University, he following in the footsteps of G.W.F. Hegel began in burning to attack the historical credibility of the New Testament and in particular the Gospel of John.15But after a series of textual and archeological finds, Adolf von Harnack, who himself once sympathized with Baur, rejected his assumptions stating in 1897 that, The assumptions of Baurs school, one can almost say, are now wholly abandoned.16This confrontation sparked by the rise of modern censure produced galore(postnominal) such debates and it serves to adorn the theological climate within which Gottfried Thomasius and other German theologians wrote.Gottfried Thomasius was a Lutheran theologian who in the mid-eighteen hundreds, attempted to arrive an acceptable Christology that could withstand the criticism of his day.17In an attempt to do so, he published his Christi Person und Werk. D avid Law states,The first edition of Christi Person und Werk appeared amid 1853 and 1861. Beca physical exertion of the criticism leveled at the early volumes of the first edition, Thomasius began revisions for the second edition before all three volumes of the first edition had appeared. The second edition was published between 1856 and 1863. A third and abridged edition, edited after Thomasiuss goal by F.J. Winter, was published between 1886 and 1888, but it is the second edition that is regarded as the mature and writeitative statement of Thomasisus kenotic Christology.18Subsequent publications showed Thomasiuss efforts to expound on his imagination of kenosis. David Law states, In Beitrag Thomasius argued that the tensions within Lutheran Christology could be resolved only by reformulating the doctrine of the person of Christ in margins of a self-limitation of the Logos.19In essence this self-limitation is the intellection behind Thomasiuss view of kenosis. Law gives a mor e defined description of this idea stating,It was above all Thomasiuss percentage to kenotic Christology that established him as a major theologian. The noun kenosis and the adjective kenotic are derived from the use of the term ekenosen in Phil. 27, where we read of Christ Jesus who, though he was in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself heauton ekenosen, taking the form of a servant, being born in human likeness. On the basis of the use of the term ekenosen in this text, kenosis has come to be used as shorthand for a series of issues arising from the claim that Christ is both truly divine and truly human. How can divinity and humanity coexist in the one, united person of Christ without undermining the integrity of either nature? Kenotic christologies are those christologies which attempt to address this enigma by arguing that Christ emptied himself of some aspect of his divine nature in order to become a human being.2 0The conceit of Christ emptying himself of some aspect of the divine nature in an act of self-limitation has serious significance and questions the immutability of God the Son.This comes into direct contradiction in terms with the statement of Chalcedon in several key areas.First, Chalcedon established that the incarnation of Christ did not change, effect or diminish any attributes of deity Christ had before the incarnation. He is without change21. Secondly, Chalcedon affirmed the distinction of natures, being no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature, being carry on and coming together to form one person and subsistence.22The orthodox view is that the incarnation of Christ did not constitute a loss of any aspect of his divine nature, through the act of kenosis or any other such theory.Kenotic TheologyAlthough Thomasiuss influence and that of kenotic Christology in general gave way in Germany in the 1880s to Ritschlianism, kenotic Christology enjo yed a second flowering in Britain.23In the years following, interest would subside but then unexpectedly grow again as theologians once again reexamine the kenotic theory.In new-fashioned years there has been a renewed interest in kenotic Christology (see, for example, Evans, 2006). each current attempt to formulate a coherent and viable kenotic Christology will need to return to Thomasiuss work, above all to his Christi Person und Werk.24.In Christian Theology Millard Erickson gives his definition of kenoticism stating, The second Person of the Trinity laid apart his distinctly divine attributes (omnipotence, omnipresence, etc.), and took on human qualities instead.25In this view, Jesus is not God and man simultaneously, but successively. Kenoticism implies that Jesus is both God and man, moreover not at the same time.26Others have thought to develop the position of kenoticism in not such an abrogated way. Instead they incorporate the idea into a more mild form of kenotic theo logy. In a review of Michael J. Gormans Inhabiting the cruciate God Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Timothy G. Gombis of Cedarville University states,In chapter 1, Gorman develops Pauls master paper that demonstrates the kenotic character of Jesus Christ and reveals the very identity of God as kenotic. He focuses on Phil 25-11 and argues, based on a innate exegetical treatment of the passage, that the pattern although x not y but z reveals the narrative flight of the kenosis of Jesus. By this, Gorman means although status not selfishness but selflessness (p.16). Jesus Christ had status as God himself but did not exploit this, using it for his own comfort of personal gain. Rather, he pursued several progressively contaminating positions on a movement of downward mobility, going eventually to the in public shameful death on a cross (pp. 16-17). For Gorman, this passage is not properly understood to mean that Christ did this despite the fact tha t he was in the form of God. Rather, Christ pursued this path because he was in the form of God. In other words, and this is a crucial point for Gorman, Christs being in the form of God is most clearly seen in his self-emptying and self-expenditure (p. 25). In this sense, the very character of God is kenotic (self-emptying) and cruciform (cross-shaped).27In this passage, the reviewer (Gombis) notes that the compose (Gorman) thinks the kenotic passages are not clearly understood. Noting this misrepresentation, he suggests a proper view of kenotic theology. Whether or not Gorman is true in his assumptions remains speculative however it does illustrate the contemporary effort to redefine the implications inherent in kenotic theology. unmixed TheologyThe more classical view of the person and nature of Christ are theologies based more on the Chalcedonian formula and are gourmandize in the theological community. Some theologians have attempted to address the problem of formulating an ac ceptable understanding of the human and divine nature of Christ endlessly keeping a wary eye upon the parameters of the orthodox or Chalcedonian understanding of the incarnation. From the abstract of Robin Le Poidevins Identity and the complex Christ an Incarnational delemma, the author states,One way of understanding the reduplicative formula Christ is, qua God, omniscient, but qua man, throttle in knowledge is to take the occurrences of the qua locution as picking out different parts of Christ a divine part and a human part. But this view of Christ as a composite being runs into paradox when combined with the orthodox understanding, adopting a philosophically and theologically contentious perdurantist account of persistence through time, or rejecting altogether the idea of the composite Christ.28Here the author points out a formula of Christology of the human and divine natures but at the same time, recognizes that it conflicts paradoxically with the Chalcedonian parameters of the incarnation. In this respect, many theologians still show deference to and recognize the importance of the Chalcedonian councils definitive statement.The Chalcedonian parameters have been a staple in guiding theological thought for centuries. George P. Pardington, who was a well-esteemed professor of theology among the Christian Alliance, makes this clear. In his theology primer muster in Studies in Christian Doctrine, He deals with passages in Philippians 26,7 and other verses that show the nature of the preexistence of Christ and the incarnations, stating,These and other phrases express ineffable relationships within the Godhead, which we cannot comprehend. On Phil. 26 Thayers Greek Lexicon says Form (Greek, morphe) is that by which a person or thing strikes the vision, the external appearance. There is nothing in this passage, which teaches that the interminable Word (John 11) emptied Himself of either His divine nature of His attributes, but only of the outward visible man ifestation of the Godhead. He emptied, stripped Himself, of the insignia of Majesty (Lightfoot). When spring demanded, He exercised His divine attributes (Moorehead).29Pardingtons view of the kenotic passages in no way contradicts the Chalcedonian parameters since Christ did not give up any of his divine nature or attributes.Contemporary DebateRoger Olsen has noted that the differing opinions among evangelistics. He states,Kenotic Christology-emphasizing the need to take with utmost seriousness Jesus true humanity, including limited consciousness- has made significant inroads among evangelicals, charm other evangelical theologians have resisted and criticized it.30Olsen continues to describe what he characterizes as a very heated debate among more progressive and conservative Evangelicals stating, As recently as the mid-1990s heresy charges were thrown by conservative evangelicals at more moderate and progressive ones who dared to use the kenotic motif in paternity about the inca rnation.31Theologians who reaffirm the Chalcedon formula would be Bernard Ramm and Carl Henry.32Examples of some who are more outspoken against kenoticism would be Thomas V, Morris, Donald Bloesch, Millard Erickson and Stanley Grenz.33While Grenz is somewhat critical of kenotic theology, he nevertheless does not espouse the traditional Chalcedon formula either.34Olsen states,Two evangelical theologians who have attempted to push the frontiers of Christology are Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz. Both affirm that Jesus Christ is truly God and truly human, but they are displease with the classical behavior of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union). They are not so much interested in rejecting it as in supplementing it with new and more helpful thought forms. People today, they argue, are not as tuned as ancient people were to the substance ontologies of Greek metaphysics, and the times call for a new expression of the doctrine of Jesus Christs humanity and divinity .35While the persona of this paper is not to critique the various forms of Christology espoused by many theologians among the ranks of evangelicals (and they are many), it is however concerned with the classical Chalcedonian formula of the incarnation, and whether or not kenotic theology adheres to it and why this is important.While there are those who strongly support the Chalcedonian formula, there are others who feel that it is flawed. Roger Olsen notes that both Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz are dissatisfied with the classical expression of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union).36He once again points to the work of Stanley Grenz to illustrate this stating,Grenz argues in Theology for the Community of God ( green Rapids Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000) that classical Incarnational Christology travel short biblically and logically and revises it using the eschatological ontology (the future as the locus of being) of German theologian Wolfhart Pannenbe rg. According to Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, who is not to be thought of as preexisting and then descending into human taradiddle but as revealing God and therefore belonging to the infinity of God by virtue of his resurrection.37Emphasis is Olsens.Olsen continues with his critique of Grenz showing how it is at deviation with classical Christology. This is where the debate becomes relevant to this research with respect to the Chalcedonian formula. Olsen states,The main passing between this Christology and classical Christology Chalcedonian lies in its denial of a logos asarkos discarnate or preincarnate Logos or Son of God. For Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, the second person of the Trinity. Whatever tensions or problems may exist in Pinnocks and Grenzs Christology, they are not so much revisions of the hypostatic union as restatements of the basic Christological vision in new terms.38The abandoning of the basic tenants of the Chalcedonian formula present some organic difficulties, particularly in light of the doctrine of the Preexistence of Christ which was affirmed at Chalcedon.One of the issues in regard to the nature of Christ concerns his Consciousness. When did Christ come to the realization of who he was? Theologians like Myer Pearlman were more content to leave this question open stating, Just exactly when and how this self-consciousness came must remain a mystery to us. When we think of God coming to us in the form of a man we must reverently exclaim, Great is the mystery of pietism39Erickson would say, There were within his person dimensions of experience, knowledge and love not found in human beings. We must recognize that in dealing with Christ, he was more than just a man. He had and maintained all the qualities of a divine nature and a sinless human nature as well.40Another important issue that must be addressed is that the hypostatic union is permanent and everlasting. What Christ became in the incarnation is what he shall remain perpetually (Heb 217, 724).41This is a problem for the kenotic view of Christ since that in the kenotic view, according to Erickson.42Jesus is both God and man, just not at the same time. This would imply a doing away with what Jesus became in the incarnation after his ascension and glorification.ConclusionThe question that this research is concerned with may be answered by saying that Gottfried Thomasiuss original view of kenosis is not on the whole consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation.SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church ed. Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder Oxford Oxford University Press, 1999.Byfield, Ted. ed., The Christians Their First Two Thousand age Edmonton Christian Millennial History Project, 2002.Erickson, Millard J., Christian Theology Grand Rapids baker Academic, 1998.Geisler, Norman L. When Skeptics Ask a handbook on Christian Evidences Grand Rapi ds Baker Publishing, 2008.Gombis, Timothy G. in review of Inhabiting the Cruciform God Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol. 52, Is. 4 2009, p. 866.Gonzalez, Justo L. The horizontal surface of Christianity vol.1, The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation New York Harper Collins, 1984.Hall, J.H., Chalcedon, Council of (451), in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell Grand Rapids Baker Academic, 2009.Law, David R. Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) in The Blackwell Companion to the Theologians bulk 2, ed. Ian S. Markham Malden Blackwell Publishing, 2009.Le Poidevin, Robin. Identity and the composite Christ an Incarnational dilemma, in Religious Studies, Cambridge Vol. 45, Is. 2 2009, p. 167.McQuilkin, Robertson. Understanding and Applying the book of account Chicago Moody Press, 1992.Mitchell, Daniel R. The Unity of the Person of Christ, category lecture, Liberty Baptist Theologi cal Seminary, April 15, 2010.Olsen, Roger E. The Westminster handbook to Evangelical Theology Louisville Westminster John Knox Press, 2004.Pardington, George P. define Studies in Christian Doctrine Harrisburg Christian Publications, 1926.Pearlman, Myer. Knowing the Doctrines of the Bible Springfield Gospel Publishing, 1981.

patient health care professional communication

unhurried health bearing skipper conversation prove any three factors which must be considered by a HCP to understand better health well organism of individual support individuals in retention healthy.This assignment will discuss how health complaint victors piece of tail alleviate progress forbearing of finagle improve service substance abuser fundamental interaction by running(a) in force(p)ly within interprofessional teams demonstrating an understanding in patient behaviour and patient health grapple professional communication, values that merchant ship support patients health and well being.In improving service user interaction particular attention is advised to be paid to automobile trunk language, the non communicative communication in the midst of patient and health bearing professional (Martin Friedman 2005 MacDonald, 2004 Dillon, 2007). Dickson et al (1989) concurs that health care professionals would benefit from the use of onusive communication in the context of interviewing patients. Some successions body language portrayed by a patient whitethorn conflict with verbal messages this would indicate they may be trying to facade something (Martin Friedman, 2005).The health care professional should make regular but not intrusive eye contact to manoeuvre interest, a lack of eye contact idler signal a lack of concern, embarrassment or submissiveness which could dissuade the patient from confiding (Myerscough Ford, 1996 MacDonald, 2004). grounds stinker be conveyed with a relaxed body posture and appropriate nervus facialis emitions (Dickson et al, 1989). Sitting a suitable distance from the patient to allow butt against to the patient if this is supportive, may sanction the patient to be more relaxed and fan bulge out (Myerscough Ford, 1996).A simple gesture such as a milkshake at the beginning of a meeting skunk reassure the patient and have a positive effect on the relationship (Myerscough Ford, 1996 Dickson et al, 1989). The health care professional should maintain enough distance to the patient to reverse interference into apiece others personal space whilst at the same time acquiring enough space to allow confidentiality (Workman Bennett, 2003 Dillon, 2007). There may be times when it is necessary to move c stick outr to the patient, if a patient is toughened of hearing, unable to move or for treatment (Myerscough Ford, 1996 Williams, 1997).To efficiently increase learn skills and improve communication health care professionals could receive and interpret cultivation from patients (Dickson et al, 1989). Patients should be encouraged to have independence by make decisions some their treatment with guidance (Public Guardian, 2009). Clarifying questions can help to receive flat answers, asking too many questions at once may daunt the patient and they tend to only answer the last question asked (Minardi Riley, 1997). Paraphrasing and summarising is an effective way to make cle ar what is being discussed (Minardi Riley, 1997). Throughout any news with the patient the health care professional should respect their confidentiality (Servellen, 2008).Social background signal should make no difference as to how a patient is dealt with, each person deserves the time, commitment and treatment needed (Townsend et al, 1992). We live in a society with different cultures, genders and class judgments can hinder relations between patient and health care professionals (Thompson, 2002 Dickson et al, 1989). Patients can often feel they lose individuality and feel their condition is treated and not them as a human being (Taylor, 1997).People with disabilities often feel isolated and frustrated, disquietude rejection and feel self conscious. Some people are either innate(p) with disabilities or have developed them through disease or accident. If a patient has an issue with a problem they have it is important to set back alienating them by ignoring their feelings (Myersc ough Ford, 1996). Patients should feel they have enough time to cast any issues they have without feeling uncomfortable, analysed or criticised by the health care worker, who should remain impartial (Myerscough Ford, 1996). Health care professionals should not make assumptions or so patients who may have some form of mental dis qualification as this can reflect in the patients on self-esteem ( design Nurse, 2003b).Showing empathy, not sympathy towards patients is important (Minardi Riley, 1997). Burnard (1992) advises it is wrong to make assumptions astir(predicate) someone on the dot because of the way they dress, their lifestyle or attitude, as these can sometimes be interpreted poorly, health care professionals should reflect about how they came to those ideas and question what that says about them.All health care professionals would benefit from working as a team of interprofessionals to improve patients health care (Burnard, 1992). With numerous occupations in the health care profession it is remarkable how each individual has their own musing and diagnosis of the patient (Soothill et al, 1995). It is important to understand the roles of other health care professions and the responsibilities they face in order to work as a thriving team (Thompson, 2002).Servellen (2008) explains coordination and quality of care are paramount and failure in provision can have an unconstructive effect on patients contentment, leash to lack of trust and reluctance to be treated. The use of written proportionateness to avoid confusing messages can help improve overall care of patients (Mackay, 1993). Mistakes, such as wrong medication, treatment or food can have unnecessary effects on the patient (Mackay, 1993). Portraying self-awareness increases authorization in the patient and their family, combined with regularity in communication this provides increase trust from the patient (Servellen, 2008). There should be a balance of mildness and assertiveness (Thompson , 2002).Continuous professional development adds new challenges, it shows the willingness to learn and augment knowledge that keeps motif within the health care professionals job (Thompson, 2002). Evaluating pursuit within the health care profession allows lessons to be learned from a professional and personal level, whilst evaluating practice enables assessment this is intimately practice that identifies strengths and potential weaknesses that can be addressed to improve service user interaction, inter-professional working and health behaviour (Thompson, 2002).Reflective practice is a way of making sense of doubt. Learning to deal with situations, sometimes stressful, can be a constructive experience for the health care professional. Situations sometimes need to be hectic in order to learn under pressure. Without learning thither is unforesightful improvement in the skills of the health care professional. Choices are make by health care professionals every minute of their work ing solar day (Ghaye Lillyman, 2000).To deal with health behaviour a health care professional can be the voice of the patient enabling them to express their beliefs, emotions, hopes and worries to regain a way of dealing with their feelings, everyone has a voice and they may express their voice in different ways (Ghaye Lillyman, 2000). Values make a person who they are, why they do what they do and why (Ghaye Lillyman, 2000).It is not eer an easy task to encourage a patient to change their views. A person may smoke because they believe it relieves stress regardless of the effect on their health (Townsend et al, 1992). All smoking accomplishes is to help a person forget about the stress they have for a short utmost of time, it then becomes a cycle that is tough to break (Townsend et al, 1992). Finding out why a person smokes and why they enjoy smoking can be of help in understanding any underlying problems the patient may have (Practice Nurse, 2003a). A situation where a perso n is inviolate willed in the wrong manner can make the health care professionals responsibility difficult (Lewis et al, 1993).It is important to keep to realistic goals for patients to aid with their motivation and confidence, in comparison, a patients improvement can be deterred by phantasmagoric goals being set (Thompson, 2002). Significance should be placed to avoid verbalise in medical terms to a patient this could confuse them unnecessarily and cause difficulty in communication (Thompson, 2002 MacDonald, 2004). A full business relationship is needed to reassure the patient and clarify information to avoid fretfulness (Dickson et al, 1989).People in general have different ideas on improving their health. A health care professional can help to encourage a healthier lifestyle and reduce sickness by fling advice and assessing action taken by the patient (Lewis et al, 1993). Helping patients to refrain from suppressing their feelings can avert physiological difficulties as when someone is tense, they can develop postural problems (Burnard, 1992).Physical stress symptoms may lead to a lack of rest, tiredness, little or no appetite and digestion disturbance, psychological stress affects the mind of patients and can lead to apprehension enthusiasm (Dillon, 2007 Practice Nurse, 2003a). Increased levels of stress in a patient of Ill health can reduce their ability to cope with everyday life lacking in enthusiasm (Dillon, 2007 Practice Nurse, 2003a). Burnard (1992) confers how it is important as health care professionals to recognise this, although this is not continuously easy to spot. As we gain knowledge we better understand thither is a connection linking body posture, the muscles, joints and the mind, a relaxed mind would encourage a relaxed body.This essay has argued that patient care and well being can be improved through the implementation of pricey all round verbal and nonverbal communication without prejudice or discrimination (MacDonald, 1997 Dillo n, 2007). Sometimes patients only if need to be asked how their poor health affects them and the quality of their life (Baker, 2000). lovely with other people enables interaction and understanding in communicating with people. handsome communication and information given to patients is essential to patient care, organisation, well being and recovery (Taylor, 1997 Dickson et al, 1989 Martin Friedman, 2005). Health professionals play a significant part to ensuring good working practice and job satisfaction (Thompson, 2002).References(2003a) Smoking cessation. Practice Nurse, 26 7, 52-56.(2003b) What is Stigma, Practice Nurse, 26 10, 18-19.Baker, M. (2000) Modernising NHS, patient care (empowerment) the view from a case society, accessed 10th November 2009, 6.10pm, http//www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/320/7250/1660.Burnard, P. (1992) Effective communication skills for health professionals, Chapman Hall, London.Dickson, D.A., Hargie, O., Morrow, N.C. (1989) communion skills train ing for health professionals, Chapman Hall, London.Dillon, P.M. (2007) Nursing health assessment A lively thinking, case studies approach. 2nd Ed. F.A. Davies Company, Philadelphia.Ghaye, T., Lillyman, S. (2000) Reflection Principles and practise for health care professionals, Quay Books, Wiltshire.Lewis, L.V.W., Timby, B. K., Frawley, B. (1993) positive skills and concepts in patient care, 5th Ed, Chapman Hall, London.MacDonald, E. (Ed.) (2004) Difficult conversations in medicine, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Mackay, L. (1993) Conflicts in care medicine and nursing, Chapman Hall, London.Martin, L.R., Friedman, H.S. (2005) Nonverbal communicatings and Health Care, In Riggio, R.E., Feldman, R.S. (Eds.) Applications of nonverbal communication, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., London. pp.3-16.Minardi, H.A., Riley, M.J. (1997) Communication in health care a skills based approach, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.Myerscough, P., Ford, M. (1996) Talking with patients, keys to good c ommunication, 3rd Ed, Oxford University Press Inc, Oxford.Office of the Public Guardian (2009) The code of Practice, accessed seventh November 2009, 5.18pm http//www.publicguardian.gov.uk/docs/mca-code-parctice-0509.pdfServellen, G.M.V. (2008) Communication skills for the health care professional concept, practice and evidence, 2nd Ed, Jones and bartlett pear Publishers, London.Soothill, K., Mackay, L., Webb, C. (Eds.) (1995) Interprofessional relations in health care, Edward Arnold, London.Taylor, S., Field, D. (Eds.) (1997) Sociology of health and health care, 2nd Ed, Blackwell cognition Ltd, Oxford.Thompson, N. (2002) People skills, 2nd Ed. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.Townsend, P., Whitehead, M., Davidson, N. (Eds.) (1992) Inequalities in health the black report the health divide, 2nd Ed. Penguin Books Ltd, London.Williams, D. (1997) Communication skills in practice A practical channelize for health professionals, Jessica Kingsley, London.Workman, B.A., Bennett, C.L. (2003 ) Key Nursing Skills, Whurr Publishers Ltd, London.

Work of clifford geertz in history

earn of clifford geertz in taleWhat Does The Work Of Clifford Geertz Have To Offer Research Into autobiography?With the publishing of his criminal study, The Interpretation of Cultures in 1973, Geertz has often been hailed as the champion of emblematic anthropology. Geertz outlined subtlety as a system of inherited conceptions evince in exemplary forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate, and develop their cognition just around and attitudes towards life He believed the role of anthropologists was to try and dgetstairsstand the implicit in(p) symbols of the last in question, a term he describes as recondite(p) Description. Geertz also call fored extensive pasture on religion, evently on Islam, in twain Southeast Asia and North Africa. His most famous manipulation of thick description is portrayed in the essay Deep Play Notes on the Balinese Cockfight, and his theories still influence anthropology to this day.But how does the spend a penny of an an thropologist, concerned with analysing advanced societies, support to historians whose spend a penny concerns cultures from the ago?In this essay I will raise how both(prenominal) anthropologists and historians attempt to examine mankind in the mist, and how cultural historians in this endeavour pay back attempt to use an anthropological model to dissolving agent historic questions in do to do so. With the development of cultural storey historians creation of the past as an other, a place completely distinct from our knowledge, they attempt to view tale through an anthropological lens.But scorn differences between diachronic and anthropological inquiry in that location has been much interdisciplinary study between the two, with friendly and cultural historians attempting to use concurrent psycho compend as a way of viewing the past they be stu death. memoir begins a view of time and space all within a single plane that stays unmoving and none changing und er the cultural historians gaze, just as the Bayeux tapestry shows the history and circumstance of the Norman Conquest of England.Even with the rise of contemporaneous compend, historians welcome not run-d bear diachronic abbreviation as an analytic tool. Historians still feel they aim to explain the context of the surmounts they atomic image 18 studying in mold for their investigate to be viewed as complete.This has led to legion(predicate) criticisms of Geertzs work and how historians catch utilize his research to past societies. Geertzs detachment of culture and history has, in numerous lineaments, created much problems for the cultural historian than it has solved. Due to these difficulties, cultural historians have shied ap nontextual matter from many larger diachronic debates in order to study features removed of the historical main-stream. They have centersed on small and, in roughly historians views, inconsequential histories, becoming bogged d avow in their own tedium. With this, friendly history has focussed on the development of favorable theory, alternatively than the society in questions development over time.With these views in mind, I have attempted to uses Geertzs analytical models with my own research Hearts and Minds A Study on the encounter of Christianity on paganism in the Byzantium Empire during the 4th century CE. utilize examples drawn from my own work, I will attempt to see the merits of victimisation an anthropological model tour studying the religions of the past those that were still evolving and those religions that were dying out.At this stage it is important to pay off the object which cultural historians have attempted to study with an anthropological view intimate history itself.As a noun, history enkindle be defined as1) a continuous, systematic write up of past events as relating to a particular people, country, period, person, etc., normally indite as a chronological throwaway chronic le a history of France a medical history of the patient.2) a systematic account of any set of phenomena without particular key outence to time a history of the Ameri crapper eagle.The definition of history as a continuous, systematic narrative and as a systematic account of any set of phenomena without particular extension to time, or, as phrased by Michael Chanan the formal summary of a habituated system as it exists in the impart moment ( synchronic) and analysis crossways time, or historical explanation (diachronic) means the historian has to show their cognisance of both in order to fully explore the topic they be researching.The historian Marc Bloch stated that the good historian was homogeneous the giant in the fairy tale. He knows that wherever he catches the scent of human flesh, there his quarry lies. While C. Wright-Mills remarked about the anthropologist What social science is properly about is human variety, which consists of all the social universe of discours e in which men have lived, are living and might live. heathenish historians have embraced Geertz, using his ideas and methods and applying them to historical models, such as Matthew Eric Engelke and Matt Tomlinsons The limits of meaning case studies in the anthropology of Christianity. Although historians are not as prone to theoretical disputes as much as anthropologists, it is also true that Geertz does not serve as a scratch in generalised struggles among historians.According to Paula S. Fass, the limitations of social history in prior historiography led to the development and subsequent dominance of cultural history in the 1970s and 1980s. disrespect the move in focus away from policy-making elites towards the examination of social groups and their behavioural tendencies , cultural historians felt that social history had ignored both the uniqueness of individual experience and the ways in which social life is created through politics and culture collectable to the dehumani zation of such social groups by reducing them to quantifiable data. Social historians conviction on structural explanations and development of group categories began to deaden history as an exploration of contingent experience. By the mid 1980s, cultural historians were adapting work make by social historians, such as Herbert Gutman and Eugene Genovese, and taking them further by exploring the way agency was attri scarceed to participation in predefined group activity. ethnical historians more and more employ the anthropological and post-modern perspective of identity as an ever-changing construct, what anthropologists refer to as liminal experiences and deconstructing identity entirely. Due to this, social historians research potentials have exit quite limited receivable to the constrictions of primary sources in the construction of familiar life, while, in the language of FassCultural historians, in contrast, put their faith in a fuller exploration of language and because, in their view, all culture is connected, all forms of articulation could be examined as exemplary.Geertzs ideas have become so attractive to historians due to the development of cultural history, with historians focussing on the past as a place structurally different from the modern world worlds where peoples motives, senses of honour, daily tasks, and political calculations are ground on unfamiliar assumptions about human society and the cosmic order. Phillip Pulsiano and Elaine M. Treharne in A Companion to Anglo-Saxon belles-lettres, explore the religious aspects in Old English poetry in relation to Geertzs definition of religion itself.Both anthropology and history, according to Geertz, are both similar and different, both looking for the same type of answers but communicate different questions. Historians focus on broad sweeping actions and movements , while anthropologists focus on small, well bounded communities wallowing in the detail of the obscure and immaterial (or, as Geertz phrases it in his typically artistic panache narrative (it is said), is be by the history-from-below rather than focussing on the Movers-and-Shakers, such as Kings, Philosophers and Bishops). Anthropologists present static pictures of immobile societies scattered across the remote corners of the inhabited world, while anthropologists accuse historians of schematicism, of being out of touch with the immediacies and intricacies, the feel as they like to put it, considering themselves to have it, of actual life.With this said, it has not been unusual for historians and anthropologists to conduct research in each others field historical research such as Roger Chartiers The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution, Carlo Ginzburgs The Cheese and the Worms the macrocosm of an Sixteenth Century Miller, and Natalie Zemon Davis caller and culture in archaeozoic modern France eight essays to name but a few.Despite the attraction of Geertzs theory to social historians, the dif ferences between historical research and ethnography can hinder the historians full utilisation of Geertzs inscrutable Description model. Historians are dependent to the textual raise pen by a literate elite, with the culture and symbols of those who existed outside of the elites literacy focus muzzy in the minds of those who lived through it a stark difference from the exponent of anthropologists to observe the make of culture and its symbols when studying cultures in the field. Despite historians criticisms of anthropologists reliance on oral examination testimony, with its possible invented tradition and frailties of memory, Geertzs ability to examine the religious development of Morocco and Indonesia closely first hand must be greatly envied by social and cultural historians.Despite the difference between history and anthropology, many historians (especially social historians like Michael MacDonald and Robert Darnton) have embraced Geertzs ideas. However, this raises an other question why would historians, whose work is essentially diachronic in nature, be interested in the synchronic analysis of an anthropologist?It is important at this time to look at the meaning of synchronic analysis. As William H. Sewell Jr. explainsAlthough a synchronic description or analysis is often glossed over as a snapshot that freezes time or as a slice of time, that is not quite right. Such a description is, rather, one in which time is stop deaded or abolished analytically so that things that actually occur in the flow of time are treated as part of a uniform moment or epoch in which they simply coexist To put it otherwise, in synchronic description acts of cultural signification, rather than being treated as a temporal sequence of statement and counterstatement or as linked by causal chains of antecedent and consequence, are seen as components of a in return defined and mutually sustaining universe of unchanging meaning.The use of synchronic analysis on what Geer tz called cultural systems presented cultural historians with the ability to explore the past with a new analytical model. Robert Darnton, in his book The Great Cat mow down uses such analyses to explore episodes from eighteenth century France, especially in his essays Peasants verbalise tales The Meaning of Mother Goose (an analysis of the cultural significance to French, German and Italian fairy tales) and Workers Revolt The Great Cat Massacre of the ruefulness Saint Severin (in which he explores the cultural context of the massacre of cats in genus Paris by printing apprentices during the late 1730s).The use of thick description allows historians to suspend time rather than be carried along with historical narrative, and in the bear on analyse the transformations of the past with greater accuracy and depth. Geertzs ideas of thick description have allowed historians like David Sabean to explore witchcraft in seventeenth century Germany.Despite criticisms by anthropologists of the diachronic approach taken by historians in the past, many historians are still attached to the ideas of history in transformation. Many the Statesn new social historians and those within the French Annales school try to define themselves against historical narrative and by those attempting to manage or side-step conceptual problems by writing historical accounts , such as Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, as seen in his book A chronicle of the Jewish people.William H. Sewell Jr has best conveyed this viewIt Geertzs theory tells us, perhaps surprisingly, that adequately substantialized synchrony is more important to good historical analysis than adequately realized diachrony. In the eyes of professionals it is more important for a historian to know how to suspend time than to know how to recount its passage.This is shown in the work of historians such as Noriko Onodera, who examines the evolution and development of the Nipponese language, and Stephen M. Feldman, with his analysis of t he separation of the Church and State during the twentieth century.Although Geertzs theories have become usual with cultural historians, there have been many critics of not only his own work but how historians (especially those studying cultural aspects) have used Geertzs work in their own research.Although Geertzs work features events as they happen in real historical time, he uses a literary device to make his work less formerly structured. This means that he uses the social and historical bear upon of the cultural model he is analysing as a writing style rather than a strict analytical tool. This is best demonstrated in Geertzs essay Deep Play Notes on the Balinese Cockfight.William Roseberry, in an analysis of Geertzs essay (in his book Balinese Cockfights and the Seduction of Anthropology), argues that Geertz does not take into account the history of its development, and that we should esteem of the material social process as a production rather than as a product(stating tha t the issues on development are mentioned but never taken up by Geertz). Roseberrys view, one which I personally jibe with, is that the cockfight has gone through a process of creation that cannot be stray from Balinese history. Geertz detached culture and history by treating history as a text to be read and scrutinised rather than being an essential cuckold in the fabric of Balinese life.Maybe due to this separation, historians, despite their enthusiasm, have been in many cases less than successful in their attempts to marry history with impenetrable Description. For example, Roger Becks attempt to apply Geertzs description and interpretation to the symbol system of Mithraician mysticism is hardly successful, and neither is his comparison with the symbol system of the Mexican Chamulas.With historys diachronic roots, anthropology as a whole has had difficulty in finding rank ground with historians outside of cultural history. With focus on eccentric bits of evidence (or, as I view it, obsession with the mundane), cultural historians and anthropologists writing about history search for evidence around a central point of argument and build a mountain around a molehill and that molehill can lie on the periphery of the subject. Rather than pushing back the frontiers of historical research by opening up and exploring new channels of investigating through analysis of symbols within societies in the past, cultural historians have become intent with finding hidden histories rather than bringing new get out to work at the focus of historical debate.Despite the development of social theory by anthropologists and the rise of cultural history and its application to history, more or less none deal with the explanation of historical change, with the main problem created by most social theory being the accounting for social order or social structure rather than the development and history of those roots.With my own research I have focused on the impact of Christiani ty on paganism in the eastern half of the Roman Empire during the quartern century CE, analysing how Christianity infiltrated aspects of the educated elite, society, the state apparatus and its depiction through art and on coinage. My work also focussed on a number of other factorsThe peasants in the eastern half of the Roman Empire were of course conservative and were initially hostile to the Christian community that were mainly based in urban centres.Eastern Roman peasants clung to their local pagan deities as they took care of their first-order concerns healing, death and family as pagan spirits and deities took care of these concerns there was no initial need to abandon them in favour of Christianity.Bishops and preachers that attempted to convert the peasantry failed as they were distrusted by the peasantry because of their connections to local government. Bishops and preachers also addressed them in Greek or Latin and in complex rhetoric styles, modify them from the peasant ry who spoke in their everyday local dialects.The destruction of pagan temples in the urban centres and the construction of Christian basilicas on top of them or in their vicinity changed the power balance within such centres against the pagan cults. wholly the establishment of monasteries away from the urban centres deep in the countryside led to the b need conversion of the peasantry through the contacts they made with them through local trade and due to the conversion tactics that the monasteries employed.Due to the amount of written documentation lendable to us, initially it may seem that Geertzs theories on symbolic systems in reference to early Christian rites and formal rituals may make Christianity in the fourth century eastern Roman Empire accessible to us. Although the study of early Christianitys cultural anthropology through field work is obviously impossible, the archaeological record of pagan temple destruction and the construction of Christian basilicas with the reu sed stone cannot be described as thick description as the reuse of the stone from the pagan temples is not a symbolic act in its own right, but a form of cheap and readymade building material. However, Geertz himself has used written accounts from the past as effectively as he used his own field work and that of other anthropologists.This, however, cannot be said about localized pagan rituals ones performed in homes and fields in small, personal shrines. Eric Wolf suggested that these rituals were due to peasants first-order concerns, such as protection of the family unit in this world and the next. The lack of documented evidence, even if written by a condescending Christian elite, makes symbolic analysis extremely difficult.If we focus on pagan lost ceremonies then Geertzs theory appears to be a hopeless endeavour. That is because, despite the wideness and detail as a complex of symbols, textual evidence rarely mentions local pagan rituals for what they are, and when it does m any aspects of them are either exaggerated or incredibly distorted, indeed destroying their immediate ritual context. Even if the ritual context had survived through the textual, or through the archaeological, evidence that would allow us to subject it to symbolic interpretation, it cannot now be interpreted in the way we can interpret Christianity we cannot trace the evolution of a religion which is now extinct.To conclude, the work of Clifford Geertz has a lot to offer research into history, as long as his work is used correctly.In my introduction I stated how both anthropologists and historians attempt to examine humanity in the mist, and how cultural historians attempt to use anthropological models to answer historical questions in order to do so. In this endeavour, cultural historians have been unsuccessful. Geertz, and other anthropologists, benefit from the ability to view culture closely (and as Geertzs brush with the Balinese police shows, perhaps a curt too closely). Cul tural historians, in contrast, have to rely on the words of those they are trying to move away from, the literate elite, in order to view the lives of those who had no written history of their own. Rather than viewing humanity in the mist, cultural historians, for instance have attempted to determine a peasants accent by studying the peasants reflection in a pestiferous puddle.Historians reluctance to abandon diachronic analysis undermines the benefits of synchronic analysis, despite anthropologists attempts to conduct historical research. Cultural historians attempts to suspend time removes them from the historical development that took place, therefore allowing them to be caught up in the difficulties that anthropologist themselves have faced. This problem is only exacerbated by the reliance on textual evidence.As shown with my attempt to use Geertzs theories in relation to my own research, I too had difficulties overcoming this problem. As I used a large amount of archaeological evidence when researching the power transmit from pagan to Christian domination in eastern Roman urban centres it was nearly impossible to apply thick description and investigate symbolic systems due to their lack of context. Again, the reliance on textual evidence written by a hostile group means that there are other historical methods which would be more beneficial when symbolic contexts and restricted written records are unavailable.At face value, I understand the salute Geertzs theories would have for cultural historians trying to uncover the mindset, culture and experiences of those who lived in the past. However, the ability for anthropologists to study their subject at first hand, and therefore place more emphasis on first-hand accounts, leaves cultural historians at a crucial disadvantage. Geertzs theory changed the face of anthropological research, but I doubt it will do nothing but frustrate the historian by reminding them of what they are missing.BibliographyBooksR. Be ck, The holiness of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire Mysteries of the Unconquered cheerfulness (Oxford advanced York, 2006)H. H. Ben-Sasson A history of the Jewish people (Cambridge, 1976)M. Bloch, The Historians Craft (Manchester, 1954)P. Burke, The French historical Revolution The Annales School, 1929-89 (Stanford 1990)M. Chanan, Musica practica the social recitation of Western music from Gregorian chirp to postmodernism (London, 1994)R. Chartier The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution (Durham, 1991)R. Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984)N. Z. Davis auberge and culture in early modern France eight essays (Stanford, 1987)M.E. Engelke and M.Tomlinson (ed.) The limits of meaning case studies in the anthropology of Christianity (New York, 2006)S. M. Feldman Please Dont Wish Me a Merry Christmas Critical narration of the Separation of Church and State (New York, 1997)C. Geertz Islam Observed Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia (Chicago, 1971)C . Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures(New York, 1973)E. Genovese Roll, Jordon Roll The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974)C. Ginzburg The Cheese and the Worms the Cosmos of an Sixteenth Century Miller (Baltimore, 1980)H. Gutman Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York, 1976)M. MacDonald, witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London(London 1991)N. Onodera, Japanese discourse markers synchronic and diachronic discourse analysis (Amsterdam, 2004)P. Pulsiano and E. M. Treharne A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature (Oxford, 2001)W. Roseberry, Balinese Cockfights and the Seduction of Anthropology (New York, 1982)E. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, 1966)C. Wright-Mills, The Sociological fancy (London, 1959)JournalsP. S. Fass Cultural narrative/Social History Some Reflections on a Continuing talks, Journal of Social History, 37, 1(2003), pp. 39-46C. Geertz, History and Anthropology New literary History, 21, (1990) p.321-335W. H. Sewell Jr., Geertz, Cultural S ystems, and History From Synchrony to Transformation, Representations, 59 (1997) p. 35-55 cyberspace Sourceshttp//dictionary.reference.com/browse/history(Dictionary Reference.Com, 2010)C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York, 1973) p.89http//dictionary.reference.com/browse/historyM. Chanan, Musica practica the social practice of Western music from Gregorian chant to postmodernism (London, 1994) p.95M. Bloch, The Historians Craft (Manchester, 1954) p.26C, Wright-Mills, The Sociological Imagination (London, 1959) p.147W. H. Sewell Jr. Geertz, Cultural Systems, and History From Synchrony to Transformation Representations,59 (1997) p.35-55, p.36P. S. Fass Cultural History/Social History Some Reflections on a Continuing dialogue Journal of Social History, 37, 1 (2003) p.39-46, p.39I statement. p.39Ibid p.39Ibid p.39H. Gutman Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York, 1976) and E. Genovese Roll, Jordon Roll The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974)Fass, Cultural History/Social History Some Reflections on a Continuing Dialogue p.39Ibid p.40W. H. Sewell Jr., Geertz, Cultural Systems, and History From Synchrony to Transformation p.38C. Geertz, History and Anthropology New Literary History, 21, (1990) p.321-335, p322Ibid p324Ibid.p.322Ibid p.321Ibit p.321-322Ibid. p.322See C. Geertzs Islam Observed Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia (Chicago, 1971)M. MacDonald, Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London(London 1991)R. Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984)W. H. Sewell Jr., Geertz, Cultural Systems, and History From Synchrony to Transformation p.40See Religion as a Cultural System in C. Geertz, The Interpretations of Culture (New York, 1973)D. W. Sabean, Power in the fall Popular culture village discourse in early modern Germany (Cambridge, 1984)See P. Burke, The French Historical Revolution The Annales School, 1929-89 (Stanford, 1990)C. Geertz, History and Anthropology p.42Ibid. p.41N. Onodera, Japanese disc ourse markers synchronic and diachronic discourse analysis(Amsterdam, 2004) p.23S. M. Feldman Please Dont Wish Me a Merry Christmas Critical History of the Separation of Church and State (New York, 1997) p.255W. H. Sewell Jr Geertz, Cultural Systems, and History From Synchrony to Transformation p.37,c. Geertz The Interpretation of Cultures p.412W. Roseberry, Balinese Cockfights and the Seduction of Anthropology (New York, 1982) p.1022,I bid p.1022R. Beck, The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun (Oxford New York, 2006) p.69,Ibid P77Fass, Cultural History/Social History Some Reflections on a Continuing Dialogue p.43Ibid p.43C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Culture p.8E. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, 1966) p.59

Issues in the Textile Industry

Issues in the Textile IndustryThe Textile IndustryAn overview of the cloth intentnessThe stuff pains is regarded a major and largest sedulousness around the population in terms of its come out of the closetput, work and employment. It brings a large contri onlyion to diverse national economies including both global small and large-scale trading operations (Parvathi, et al., 2009). The textile manufacturing is based on the conversion of three types of fibre, the closely one be yarn then fabric and finally textile. The fibres argon then fabricate into clothes and opposites.However, the textile manufacturing originated from business deal craft practices by spinners, weavers and some happy craftsmen. The first textile companies surfaced in the United Kingdom and the Western European countries. This came with the bracing technological developments that were being introduced (Warshaw Leon, 2011).According to Warshaw and Leon (2011), the term textile manufacture was initially relate only with the weaving of fibres, but nowadays it consumes a variety of processes. Therefore, as illustrated by Greenberg (2003), the production of textiles involve processes like spinning, weaving, knitting, discolour and finishing of different natural and synthetic fibres. Today, wet processing is apply in the finishing treatment of textiles. It is further categorised into 3 more(prenominal) processes, which is the preparation process, coloration process and finishing process.Hazards present in the textile attentionThere ar different hazards to which the textile conkers atomic number 18 subject. These hazards argon categorised as (i) scene to chemical substance substance substances, (ii) pic to physical agents, (iii) exposure to biological agents, (iv) exposure to dusts and fibres, and alike (v) psycho well-disposed hazards (European Agency for sanctuary and wellness at work, 2008). word picture to chemicalsThe spinning, weaving and knitting proces s do not involve high school uptake of chemicals. The most substantial chemicals used in these operations are sizing agents like starch and other polymers such(prenominal) as lubri raftts to prevent yarns from being entangled. There is a wide variety of chemical substances used processes such as dye, printing, finishing, bl each(prenominal)ing, washing, dry clean, sizing and spinning. The most ordinarily found chemicals are dyes, solvents, optical brighteners, crease resistance agents, flame retardants, good metals and anti-microbic agents. Textile fibres, reactive dyes, synthetic fibres and formaldehyde are the respiratory and undress sensitisers that quite a little be identified in textile industries (European Agency for Safety and Health at work, 2008). The dyes that are used for cotton are usually classified into three groups firstly is the water soluble dyes, secondly are dyes soluble by alkaline reducing and lastly are the dyes form on fibre. In appurtenance, workers may be also exposed to acyclic hydro deoxycytidine monophosphates, such as mineral spirits and kerosene, which are used for cleaning of equipments and parts of the plants (Greenberg, 2003)Exposure to physical agentsFrom the European Agency for Safety and Health at work (2008), it has been concluded that textile workers are exposed to various physical agents such as noise and vibrations during the weaving, spinning, sewing, twisting and cutting process. As such, being exposed to very high noise level can result in permanent hearing damage plot of land exposure to vibration along with other risk factors for Musculoskeletal Diseases can fare long term psychic trauma. It has been noticed that workers are also exposed to electromagnetic fields.Exposure to biological agentsBiological agents are also present in the textile persistence, in processes like carding and willowing. The workers are exposed to anthrax, clostridium tetani and coxiella burnetti. These can cause allergies and r espiratory disorders. Normally, work countrys having air conditioning systems and high humidity, the workers angle to realize allergies and respiratory problems caused by moulds or yeasts.Exposure to dusts and fibresPeople works in the textile application are usually exposed to mobile particles formed from both the natural and synthetic fibres in their work environment (Oldenburg et al., 2007). Studies have shown that workers in the textile industry are more disposed to respiratory symptoms caused by cotton dust (Wang et al., 2003). In UK, the Workplace Exposure Limit (WEL) for inhalable cotton dust has been fixed at 2.5 mg/m3 for an 8 hour time weighted average (HSE, 2005).Psychosocial hazards in the textile industryEmployees experience work-related stress when they are unable to cope with the work demands. The WHO (2003) define work-related stress as the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abil ities and which challenge their ability to cope. As such, psychosocial risks have been considered as being an integral factor of the process of stress. On the one hand, these can be in relation to the job content, the giving medication and management of work, environmental and planning conditions while on the other hand it can be in terms of the competence and needs of employees. The fundamental interaction between all these factors can be dangerous to the health of employees done their perceptions and experience (Cox et al., 2002). According to the WHO (2010), psychosocial risks and work-related stress are closely associated. However, textile workers are faced to psychosocial risks since they have to perform repetitive and fast paced tasks and they cannot take whatsoever decision by themselves.The textile industry and green applied scienceThe textile industry has experienced a lot of changes and there has been the introduction of more new technologies. Today, it has been seen that there is a shift to more eco-friendly processes and chemicals used in the textile industry. These include the use of novel biopolymers along with some enzymes. The use of greener dyes forms part of the essential constituents of green technology. The other constituents of green technology in the textile industry encompass systems which include waste water reduction by recycling, automatic process control and other filtration techniques (Sekar, 1999). In the discolor process, the usage of water accounts to approximately 30-60 litres of water for 1 kilogram of cloth, so new technologies to minimise the use of water is being adopted (Deo Wassif , 1999). The new technologies that have been introduced in the textile dyeing and finishing process are as followsPlasma Treatment TechnologyPlasma is the state of a hitman when its kinetic energy increases to such an extent that the energy is represent to the ionisation energy of the gas. At this stage, the rapid cascading of ionisatio n caused by the collisions of the gas particles result in germ plasm. Plasma is the 4th state of matter.In addition, the plasma technology is applicable to the textile industries. It alters the chemical structure and surface properties of fabrics, chemical matters are deposited for better functionality and substances are removed from the fabrics to improve the applicability. The plasma technology is used primarily in the processes like pre-treatment, dyeing and finishing (Shah Shah, 2013). It is a green and simple process.Super Critical Dyeing FluidA substance which is under a pressure above its critical temperature is know as a super critical fluid. There is no singularity between gases and liquids under these specific conditions and the substance is then characterised as a fluid. As such, super critical fluids possesses the same solvent component part as light hydrocarbons used for most solutes.Super critical fluids is advantageous to the textile processing because of their a bility to combine the properties of gases and liquids. Also, their solvating power is equivalent to their density while when referring to their viscosity, the normal gas possesses a similar one. However, it is this particular combination which gives it such impressive penetration properties. The dyeing process favour this increase in density along with the increased power of solvation because of the positive effect that it has on the dissolution of disperse dye in the super critical carbon dioxide medium (Kannan Nithyanandan, n.d.).UltrasoundThe use of ultrasound in the textile industry started only after synthetic materials and their blends were introduced. It is applied mainly in mechanised processes (weaving, knitting and finishing) and wet processes (sizing, scouring, bleaching and dyeing). Ultrasound has a lot of benefits such as the processing time and energy consumption is decreased, it enhances the grapheme of products and the use of concomitant chemicals are reduced. Fo r instance, using ultrasound in the dyeing process will replace expensive thermal energy and chemicals by electricity. Various experiments were carried out to show the effectiveness of ultrasound on textile and it has been shown that the adsorption power of disperse dyes on cellulose acetate is influenced greatly by ultrasound compared to the dyeing rate when using direct dyes ( (Prince, 2009).Electrochemical Process TechnologyTraditionally, electrochemical techniques were used only for compounds synthesis and treatment for metal recovery but today its use has been expanded to the textile industry. In order to discover functionalised fabrics, electrochemistry is applied for the production of smart textiles. However this technique is used mainly in the bleaching of cotton fibres and finished denim fabrics.Electrochemical process is also applied in sulfur and vat dyeing processes to reduce the add up of dyes used making the process eco-friendly since it will not involve the addition of chemical reagents like sodium dithionite (Mireia Carmen, 2012). Electrochemical dyeing process has advantages like product saving, less chemicals used, incomparable environmental compatibility and better quicker properties is achieved. broad(a) reproducibility also is set by using electrochemical dyeing. (Das, et al., 2012)NanotechnologyNanotechnology is concerned with materials which are 1 to 100 nm long. The use of nanotechnology in the textile industry increase the durability of fabrics. This is because nano-particles possesses large surface area-to-volume ratio and high surface energy which means that they have better affinity for fabrics, thus increasing the durability of the function. The sporting industry, skincare, space technology and clothing are some examples where the nanotech enhanced textiles are being applied. It ensures that the wearer is better protected when exposed to extreme environments. Therefore, to treat textiles with nanotechnology materials is a way to enhance the properties of the fabric by making it more durable and have nicer colours (Kiron, 2013).Impacts of textile industry on environmentThe textile industry is a diversified industry being from the raw materials used to the various techniques adopted. At each steps involved in manufacturing fabrics, there are a number of environmental impacts associated with them which are also varied. For instance, the spinning, weaving and industrial manufacture of garments affects the air quality while the dyeing and printing processes use up large marrow of water and chemicals. Also, there is the emission of several volatile agents into the atmosphere which have harmful effects on the human health (Challa, n.d.).In addition, each stages of the textile processing generates innumerable wastes streams which are of liquid, gaseous, solid or precarious nature. The type of textile processes, technologies used, chemicals used and types of fibres will determine the nature of wastes generated . However, the most prevailing environmental impact is the water body pollution which arises collectable to the disposal of untreated effluents. The second greatest environmental problems caused by the industry are air pollution caused by Volatile Organic compounds (VOC) and other air pollutants. The VOC does not only affects the environment but also the workers and public health. The noise level emitted by textile machineries can also harm the environment by disturbing the natural habitats of various species in the area (C Parvathi, T Maruthavanan, C Prakash, 2009).The role of textile industry in the Mauritanian providenceThe textile industry was set up and appeared in the authorities agenda of Mauritius in the 1960s. The industry then experienced a drastic expansion during the year 1980 to 2000. Mauritius was faced with a series of positive conditions for the agone 30 years. These conditions helped the country in achieving a solid textile industry along with foreign and local investment. The industry was regarded as the main employer of Mauritius and contributed to 12 % of the GDP.However, the textile industry has not only brought a lot of improvements and developments to the economy of the country, but it can be said that its success also coincides with the social changes that came along. The first change is that it has encouraged the emancipation of women. Many women were employed when the textile industry developed. In fact the number of women being employed today also is increasing. The women, who were once viewed as housewives and who did not have the opportunity to study, were regarded as an important pool of labour. Working women started to bring income in the family and this eventually changed their role they were no longer considered as docile housewife but an single-handed income earner. The second change is that the status of families has increased from the past years since a working woman helped in increasing the family income (Joomun, 2006 ).Today, the textile industry of Mauritius has achieved a very high status among other countries and there is currently around 174 textile entreprises employing approximately 55000 people. The industry has invested continuously on innovation and greener production to satisfy the demand of the global market which is emphasising more on eco-friendly practices and products.1http//www.gov.mu/ approach/sites/nsp/industry/greenertex.htm In 2009, Mauritius was ranked as the second largest buyer of machineries, write up to 2300 machines and 9 % of the global sales. Mauritian manufacturers have also invested in latest cleaner technologies and reorganised their activities so as to combat against the low-cost aspiration of Asian countries. As such the Mauritian and Indian Governments have collaborated unitedly and signed a contract for the transfer of new technologies along with decision making on ways of improving the performance of the textile sector in Mauritius2http//www.fibre2fashio n.com/news/textile-news/mauritius/newsdetails.aspx?news_id=119742

Construct A Script By Using Scapy Computer Science Essay

Construct A Script By Using Scapy Computer Science Essay piano tuner fetchr meshing gener exclusivelyy heap be defined as a net which is unbending up by utilize radio call for frequence to communicate among computers and opposite web devices. tuner interlocks known as WiFi vane or Wlocal ara network.As a network grows and expands tuner networks argon extremely popular and easy to setup feature and no cabling involved. on that point argon two master(prenominal) comp unrivalednts to recover the radio set network which be radio set router or gravel prefigure and radio set clients. tuner network normally practiced in 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n examples communications protocol. radio network inescapably highly warranter to concur all kinds of confidential preferive in peeation which satisfy at least enabling Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) on the penetration transmit. Without right-hand(a) implementation of security measures, either tuner network adapter coming within the range move vex the profits without permission. So, it will results in congestion and rough of the authorized client ignorenot entryway the internet. So, this research will do radio set network auditing by blubbering about of the randomness within the admission price point and detect manageable intrusions in Faculty of Computer and numeral Sciences.1.1 BackgroundWireless network is a network which is setup by utilize radio bless frequency to communicate among multiple institutionalises at one time. In addition, radio network referred as WiFi network or WLAN. Although we withdraw modify WEP encryption on the chafe point, in that respect atomic number 18 still some(prenominal) weaknesses which can be easily crack by the users with the right equipment to crack. The aggressor can smell easily with some(prenominal) tools to crack the password to fit in as unauthorized person. In order to verify the invent access point settings and detect intrusions in terms of security in radio network, we render the complete deal to audit radiocommunication networks.1.2 line StatementNowadays piano tuner network become a veer in communication. Each wireless system or access point was setup with certain policies. It is disfranchised to verify whether each wireless access point setup correctly or not. Plus, nowadays we indigence to use many tools to verify the wireless access point status. Furthermore, more or less of network admin does not check back each wireless access point after its configuration. merely, we guide some tools to identify the intrusions that come where they argon try to access the Internet. Besides that, some of attackers send spoofing disgorge to try access the wireless network. So, we cannot identify the attackers macintosh address.1.3 Research ObjectivesThe main objective of this vagabond isTo construct a handwriting by using ScapyTo sniff and to begin possible intrusion on wirele ss network associate with wireless security.1.4 Scope of the ResearchThis start focuses in Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences that has multiple access points which will enables to sniff all the information on wireless networks. We focuses on info Link layer 2 to sniff the broadcast frame and identify possible intrusion.The main platform to blow over the tools-Ubuntu10.10We are use two main tools to construct the mitt which are-Python2.6Scapy1.5 Significance of the ResearchThis meet is of the essence(p) to gain knowledge to construct the complete script by using Python2.6 and Scapy script. We can learn the easiest port by using this script with the shorter line compared to other script. This project withal religious inspection and repairs to learn 802.11 frame structure including beacon frame that has transmitted by the access point.1.6 Organization of ThesisThis project portion outd into 5 main chapters Chapter 1 In this chapter, we dissertateed on the knowl edgeableness generally of this topic. It accepts problem statement, objectives, background knowledge and significance of the research.Chapter 2 This chapter palingenesised literature that relate to the topic with previous researches. We hold the similar of related studies to our research.Chapter 3 In third chapter, we identify materials and methods that are described in methodology phases in order to breed the desired information for the accomplishment of this research.Chapter 4 In fourth chapter, we discusses on the meetings of the research.Chapter 5 Finally, the stand chapter is focuses on the recommendations and suggestions where it will summarize the finish of the research.1.7 destructionThis introduction of this chapter had clearly explained the problem statement, objectives, scope, and significances of the research. This chapter demonstrates a clear view of the overall content of the research.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 IntroductionThis chapter examines the previ ous work through by prior police detective in the field of auditing wireless network, security of wireless network and any other related works. Section 2.1 discuss on main platform to build the tools. Section 2.2 discuss on the tools to be use to construct and force the script. Section 2.3 discuss on standard protocol fro wireless Lan(WLAN), IEE 802.11. Then, sections 2.4 discuss on frame for 802.11, 2.5 Wireless LAN components, 2.6 Wireless Network Sniffing, 2.7 reviews for the related works and lastly 2.8 Summarizations of literature Reviews.2.1 Platform2.1.1 Ubuntu10.10Ubuntu is a free in operation(p) system, create by venial team developers who are established Linux Debian projects. This free operating system was developed to facilitate the use of desktop linux, Ubuntu. It developed base on the Debian wildebeest/Linux distribution and distributed as free and point-blank source software mailboat.Most Ubuntu shares are based on package from Debian. twain distribution s are using Debians deb package format and package solicitude tools, Apt and Synaptic. However, sometimes .deb packages need to be re get up from source to be use in Ubuntu.Ubuntu have variant edition much(prenominal) as GNOME desktop, KDE edition, Kubuntu and server edition. In this project, we use Ubuntu 10.10 as our platform to streak all the tools in it.2.2 Tools2.2.1 PythonPython is the one of the computer programming voice communication that can interpret in developing the applications such as web applications and integrate the system more effectively. Python can run on Windows, Linux/Unix, Mac OS X. All the Python programs can be packaged into stand-alone executable code for many using various tools.In this project, we use the latest version, Python2.6 tool to construct and run the complete script after ready all the Python package in Ubuntu10.10. We use Python as a programming language because it is most powerful language and shorter to compose the code than other la nguages. Compared to other programming languages, Python are readable syntax, intuitive object orientation, very high level dynamic data tokens, large modularity, supporting hierarchical packages and many more.2.2.2 ScapyAccording to Philippe Biondi (2009), Scapy is a powerful interactive package manipulation program from Python program that be able to bull or decode softwares of a wide number of protocols, send them on the wire, capture them, match requests and replies, and much more. It can easily handle most classical tasks like scanning, tracerouting, probing, unit tests, attacks or network seey.For this project, we foc utilise on 802.11 standard protocols. Scapy enable to sniff wireless network and generate the packet and can send it to the wireless network.2.3 Wireless Protocol2.3.1 IEEE 802.11IEEE 802.11 is a standard protocol for wireless LAN (WLAN), which is uses RF technology to transmit and receive data over the air. Based on this standard protocol, it communicate s between wireless client and a base moves or access point. There are several types of standard protocols which are 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. Here are in brief about types of standard protocols2.3.1.1 IEEE 802.11bIEEE 802.11b standard supports maximum bandwidth 11Mbps in 2.4 Ghz. The advantage of this protocol is lowest. Disadvantage using this protocol is lowest maximum speed because it whitethorn interfere if no determined the frequency band.2.3.1.2 IEEE 802.11a802.11a supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps in 5 gigacycle per second. The advantage of this protocol is fast maximum speed. Disadvantage using this protocol is the represent is higher than IEE 802.11b2.3.1.3 IEE 802.11gIEE 802.11g standard supports maximum bandwidth 54Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band in maximum range. The advantage is signal range is weaken with fastest maximum speed. Disadvantage using this protocol is higher cost than IEEE 802.11b.2.3.1.4 IEEE 802.11nIEEE 802.11n is developed on previous IEEE 802 .11 standards by adding MIMO. IEEE 802.11n offers high throughput wireless transmission system at 100Mbps 200 Mbps. It is better performance compared with IEE 802.11g.2.4 802.11 body2.4.1 Frame head wordEachframecontainsastandard bearingasshownin configuration2.1Figure 2.1 Frame Headerfrom http//technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(WS.10).aspxTheframe headercontainsalltheinformation unavoidabletogettheframe towhereitisgoingand sparethereceivertounderstandwhat messagetheframeiscarrying.Frame suss out FC contains image information apply for defining the type of 802.11 mackintosh frame and providing information necessary. FC field as shown in Figure 2.2Figure 2.2 Frame Control Fieldfrom http//technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(WS.10).aspxThe details of frame control field as keep an eye onsProtocol Version Protocol Version provides the current version of the 802.11 protocol used.Type and Subtypes It is determines the function of the frame. There are three m ain varied of type fields which are control, data and management and breaks into multiple subtypes. terce values of type field00 Management01 Control10 entropy11 Reserved/UnusedBreaks into subtype field00/0000 Management/Association require00/1000 Management/Authentication00/1100 Management/Deauthentication01/1011 Control/Request To channelize (RTS)10/0000 Data/DataTo DS and from DS Specifytheaddressingtypeofthe frame, any the frame is going to or exiting from the DS.More Fragments Shows more fragments of the frame, either data or management type.Retry Retransmitted either data or management frame types.Power Management shows whether the sending station is in active dash or power-save modality.More Data shows to a station in power-save mode that the AP has more frames to send. It is as well as used for APs to show that surplus broadcast/multicast frames are to follow.WEP shows whether or not encryption and authentication are used in the frame.Order Shows that all received data frames moldiness be outgrowthed in order.Duration/ID Shows the remaining duration needed to receive the next frame transmission.Sequence Control (SEQ) SEQ usedfor atomisationand packetreassembly.Frame body The frame body contains the data or information included in either management type or data type frames.Frame Check Sequence (FCS) The transmitting STA uses a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) over all the fields of the MAC header and the frame body field to generate the FCS value.2.4.2 Beacon FrameBeacon frames are identified by the type field macrocosm set to 0 (Management Frame) and subtype of 8. Beacon frame are used by access point to advertise its presence and relay information, such as timestamp, SSID, and other parameters based on access point to radio NICs that are within range. Radio NICs continually scan all 802.11 radio take and tilten to beacons as the basis for choosing which access point is best to beau with.According to Robin Wood (2007), peoplem ostly believe that actoffbeaconswill disguisetheirnetworkfromattacksastheir SSID will no longer be broadcast. Unfortunately, SSID is transmitted in clear text in all management frames and when the network is hidden while there is no data being transmitted, attacker can receive a management frame they can start out in network SSID.2.5 Wireless LAN component2.5.1 Access pointWireless access point (WAP) is a basically hardware equipment that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. In a wireless network, an access point sends and receives signals to any number of other, local wireless devices. These are ordinarily adapters and routers. The WAP is commonly use in offices, homes and educational institutions. WAP devices use in IEEE 802.11 standards.2.6 Wireless Network SniffingWireless Sniffer is captures the data on wireless network without being detected. Wireless network sniffing works in 802.11, Ethernet as the physical a nd data link layers which is able of traverseing raw packets (RFMON support), which include any prism2 based panel (Linksys, D-Link, Rangelan, etc), Cisco Aironet cards, and Orinoco based cards.Moreover, sniffing can alike help find the easy kill as in scanning for open access points that allow anyone to connect, or capturing the passwords used in a connection posing that does not even use WEP, or in telnet, rlogin and ftp connections. Sniffing wireless network usually used by the attackers to capture the data and get the appropriate information from the beacon frame. There are several techniques used to sniff the wireless network. whatsoever of them are as follows-Passive seePassive scanning is the first travel used to sniff the wireless networks. It is turn to mode RF into proctor mode that allows every frame turn outing on a channel to be copied as the radio of the station tunes to various channels. A station in monitor mode can capture packets without associating with an AP or ad-hoc network. When the transmission of the data in the form of radio waves starts the attackers can scan the whole data staticly and carry on the sniffing process.The so-called promiscuous mode allows the capture of all wireless packets of an associated network. In this mode, packets cannot be read until authentication and association are absolute. With the help of this data sniffer can easily decodes the secret information of the wireless networks.SSID undercover workAfter scan the data transmitted, it can detect the mention of service set identifier (SSID) in the particular wireless network. The SSID shown in the Beacon frames is set to null in the hope of making the WLAN invisible unless a client already knows the correct SSID.When the Beacon displays a null SSID, there are two possibilities. Eventually, an Associate Request may appear from a legitimate station that already has a correct SSID. To such a request, there will be an Associate Response frame from the AP. Both frames will contain the SSID in the clear, and the attacker sniffs these.If the station wishes to join any available AP, it sends probe Requests on all channels, and listens for Probe Responses that contain the SSIDs of the APs. The station considers all Probe Responses, just as it would have with the non-empty SSID Beacon frames, to select an AP. Normal association then begins. The attacker usually waits to sniff these Probe Responses and extract the SSIDs. Otherwise, if the beacon transmission is disabled, the attacker has two choices. The attacker can keep sniffing waiting for a voluntary Associate Request to appear from a legal station that already has a correct SSID and sniff that SSID.Collection of MAC addressesAfter detecting the SSID, sniffer now take steps to sniff the wireless network by collecting the infallible MAC addresses with the help of passive scanning and also with the help of different types of software. The roll up of MAC address used for constructing sp oofed frame by using proper(postnominal) tool. In wireless sniffing, there are some reasons why attacker collects all the MAC address. Some of the reasons are the attacker used sniffing to hide his or her identity and their access points. The other reason, access points used in collecting the MAC would not be registered.2.7 Review of Previous colligate Works2.7.1 origin David MaynorTitle of Paper Beginners Guide to Wireless Auditing (2006)This piece of music is a accept of how to find the vulnerabilities in wireless devices drivers with specific techniques. The detective discuss on how to build auditing environment, how to construct tools and finally how to interpret the results. On this news authorship publisher, although this was done on Dell Latitude D610, the internal wireless card of the machine was not used. The researcher was used wireless card, Netgear WPN511 to set up auditing environment that is supported with madwifi drivers. The combination with LORCON (Loss Of Ra dio CONnectivity) ability to craft the packet from scratch. Moreover, after setting up the good environment with patch madwifi and LORCON, the researcher construct the script with Scapy to generate a simple frame and inclose it. The researcher use Wireshark to see the packets injected.2.7.2 Author Shreeraj ShahTitle of Paper skillful Your Wireless Networks with Scapy Packet Manipulation (2007)According to Shreej Shah, Scapy is scriptable and easy to use compared with kismet and Airodump-ng. This paper focused on intrusion detection by using proven techniques. There are two techniques can be industrious which are passive sniffing and active packet injection. The researcher discussed only passive sniffing methodology. In this project, there are several steps are used in passive sniffing methodology as follows-Set up a station for radio frequency (RF) monitor modeSniff packets and discover network access pointsDiscover hidden access points and SSID (service set identifier) harvest-fe stival MAC and IP addressesPerform ongoing intrusion detection with sniffing.2.7.3 Author Robin Wood, Robin and freedomsoftware.co.ukTitle Programming Wireless Security (2007)This paper discussed some programming techniques to build wireless security tools. The researchers construct the script by using Python and cherry script. There are several techniques that are used by using both scripts including deauthentication attack, sniffing wireless barter and automating a Four-Way- Handshake capture. All the techniques will be brought together to create an applications to modify capturing an EAPOL handshake which can used to crack the Pre-Shared Key. This paper required several tools including Lorcon, Pylorcon, ruby lorcon and Scruby. Moreover, it also discussed about several issues on Scruby which means Ruby scripts will not work properly as exactly required.2.8 Summarizations of some Literature ReviewsNoAuthorYear examine TitleProject Similarities and Differences1.Peter Seebach2005G etting practical about wireless security, Part 1 Building a wireless sniffer with PerlIn this paper, lightweight wireless sniffer was build that runs on open source software. This paper show to use open source software by getting information about on wireless network and identified the common security problem.2.TJ OConnor2010Detecting and Responding to Data Link LayerAttacksIn this paper, Scapy is used to examine network traffic for data link layer attacks with identifying signatures and anomalies on both wired and wireless networks.3.Petter Clutterbuck, Terry Rowlands, Owen Seamons2007Auditing the Data Confidentiality of Wireless Local Area NetworksThis paper describes how the software auditing artefact uses on sampled data packets to product a very detailed evaluation of the level of data confidentiality in effect crossways the WLAN.4.Mingzhe Li, Mark Claypool, and Robert Kinicki2005How to Build and Use an IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network SnifferIn this paper, wireless sniffer is bui lt on computers with Linux operating systems and prism GT-based wireless interface cards. The operating systems tested are SUSE (Novell) Linux release 9.0/9.1/9.2/10.0 and Linux Fedora Core 3 where the marrow squash version can be either 2.4.x or 2.6.x. The wireless network interface cards, Netgear WG 511 version 1 PCMCIA card and Allnet ALL0271 54Mbit Wireless PCI adapter are usedTable 2.1 Summarization of related Literature Review2.9 terminusAll the information self-possessed from this literature review is very effective in order to identify potential information that can organise this research more relevant. By ground the scenario of past implementation, it will give a better view on how to achieve these research objectives and also inspire new ideas to be implemented or added into this research.CHAPTER 3 methodology3.0 IntroductionThis chapter presents about the methodology being used as a guideline to ensure the project will operate successfully. methodological analysis consists of hardware, software and method that being used in this research. We need to choose proper hardware and software to meet the research requirement. Methodology is very important part to audit the wireless network with sequence of phases. We need to follow all this phases in order to accomplish the final project with achieving the objective. We divide the methodology of our project to several phases, where every phase will include the important activities and its significant to be done.3.1 Methodology PhaseIn this project, there are four phases of method that followed properly. First phase is planning, second phase is development, third phase is testing, fourth phase is result and evaluation and the last phase is documentation. All the flow of the methodology phase will be implementing systematically and efficiently as its role is vital to ensure the process of finishing this project in time. These phases are illustrated in methodology overview in Figure 3.1(i) and Figure 3. 1(ii).PLANNINGDEVELOPMENTTESTINGRESULT AND ratingDOCUMENTATIONFigure 3.1 Project Phase (i)DocumentationDevelopment interrogatoryResult and valuationPlanningProblem AssessmentPreliminary take in of LiteratureInstall OSInstall Python packageInstall Scapy packageConstruct scriptRun Scapy scriptSniff a list of access point.Sniff Intrusion DetectionWriting a reportProject ScopeProject ObjectiveProject Planning act upon hardware and software usedScapy script completedResult determinationFinal report completed.Figure 3.1 Project Phase (ii)3.2 Research Methodology3.2.1 PlanningFor planning phase, the activity is to define the objective of project by identifying problem assessment and by preliminary study of literature review. The deliverable of this phase can identify research objective and scope and also project planning. It consists of3.2.1.1 Preliminary study of literature reviewThe purpose is to understanding the similar or related project to be done. We need to review and get the i dea on how it can be implemented and find the objective, scope and others benefit can get for the project requirement. This preliminary study can review by journals, online resource (internet), articles or book.USER regain POINTUSERSNIFF3.2.2 DevelopmentDiagram 3.1 Structure of research project3.2.2 a Install operating systemWe install Ubuntu 10.10 with interactive Graphical drug user Interface (GUI) on the laptop. It is easier to update the latest package. All the latest package including Python will updated on Ubuntu10.10emailprotected sudo apt-get update3.2.2 b Install toolsWe install Scapy in Python program where the Scapy is interactive manipulation program that can construct with the shorter script compared to the other script. We install Python program as a main programming language and resides the entire package in it.a. Install Python 2.6 packageemailprotected sudo apt-get install pythonemailprotected cd /tmpemailprotected /tmp fetch http//www.secdev.org/projects/scapy/fil es/scapy-latest.tar.gzemailprotected /tmp tar xvzf scapy-latest.tar.gzemailprotected /tmp cd scapy-2.1.0emailprotected /tmp/scapy-2.1.0 python setup.py install b. Install python-scapy packageemailprotected sudo apt-get install python-libpcap c. Install libpcap and libdnet and their Python wrappers.emailprotected sudo apt-get install python-libdnetd. Install additional software for special features.emailprotected sudo apt-get install tcpdump graphviz imagemagick python-gnuplot python-crypto python-pyx3.2.2 c Construct the scriptWe construct the script with Python program for sniffing and detect possible vulnerabilities. The script will run on Ubuntu 10.10 in cool it terminal.3.2.3 interrogatoryTesting phase, the natural process is to test by sniffing wireless network in an area by running the completed script. Before we run the script, we need to setting up the station for radio frequency (FR) in monitor mode. We illustrates the steps in Figure 3.2Construct the scriptSetting up t he station for Radio relative frequency (RF) to monitor modeScript runEnter the commandGet the data from acces point including-Name of access pointSSIDchannelRadio TypeSecurity TypeauguryCollect the dataIntrusion Detection including-Discovering Rogue Access flowerDiscovering Dummy Access PointFigures 3.2 Steps for testing3.2.4 Result and EvaluationIn this phase, we come out with the result by running the script. We collect all the information about SSID, MAC address, channel, radio type, security type, signal from broadcast frame that send by multiple access point. Next, we can detect possible intrusion by running other script using a same scripting language.3.2.5 DocumentationIn this final phase, all the results and findings will be included in one report. From the documentation, the researcher can determine whether the project achieve the objectives or not.3.3 Hardware and package essentialTo execute this project successfully, some requirement need to be accomplish. Some of th e requirement will be involving hardware and software. Hardwares that will be required are3.3.1 HardwareThis project will used laptop.Processor at least 1 Gigahertz of CPU speed.3GB of RAM250 Gigabyte of hard disk spaceIntel WiFi Link 5100 wireless network interface cardMotherboard that support the processorMonitorNetwork cable3.3.2 SoftwareThis project will be running on LINUX platformUbuntu 10.103.3.3 ToolsPython2.6Scapy3.4 ConclusionAs a conclusion, this chapter is very important to gather all related and relevant information required. All the information will be used in order to achieve the objectives of this research.CHAPTER 4RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS4.0 IntroductionThis chapter discusses on the results gathered from this research, which is obtained by implementing the methods in Chapter 3. The result based on running completed script on Ubuntu10.10. It will display all the available information of access point actively in an area after sniffing it. Moreover we can detect all the possible intrusion with display the list of rogue access point and dummy access point.4.1 Sniff the wireless networkFirst of all we set up Radio Frequency (RF) into monitor mode which is in wlan0 interface. Next, we run the completed script that is already saved in root on Ubuntu 10.10 with the name of file, sniffap.py. Then, we open the root terminal by enter ./sniffap.py wlan0. The result has shown in Figure 4.1Figure 4.1 Sniff Wireless Networkssniffap.py name of saved filewlan0 monitor mode interfaceCHAPTER 5CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS5.0 IntroductionThis final chapter discuss about the conclusion of this research. It also discusses the suggestions and recommendations that will help those who want to upgrade or refers to this project in the future.5.1 ConclusionAs you can see, having an effective wireless access policy is critical to the security of any organization that operates a wireless networks. Without appropriate policy, the attacker easily gain access the wireless networks.5.2 passThis project is hopefully can only use the fully script to get the data from the access point without purchase the tools. Moreover, the admin take the action to get access point more securely and get a better signal for client to access the Internet.